A New Role for Contrastive Analysis

Language issues seem to have been the stumbling block for people’s communication for centuries. In his article â€Å"Cross-Linguistic Awareness: A New Role for Contrastive Analysis,† Carl James discusses the question concerning the contrastive analysis and its application for the comparative studies of two or more languages.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on A New Role for Contrastive Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Considering the following quote from Fries’ paper: â€Å"The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner,† James makes it clear that, questioning the reasonability of a cross-linguistic analysis, the researchers are most likely to encounter considerable difficulties in reaching to the representatives of ot her cultures, hence, causing the entire learning process to shrivel. While the author gives credit to both the arguments of Lado and Fries (Odlin, 1989), it is obvious that James is inclined to believe that Lado’s idea of a cross-linguistic analysis as the basis of successful communication is not reasonable enough, while Slobin’s arguments for the analysis actually make a lot of sense: â€Å"Slobin seems to be suggesting that Behaviourism has not been totally banished from language learning contexts after all† (James, n. d., 2). Therefore, the seed of doubt is planted into the minds of the adepts of abandoning the CA. It is also essential that James touches upon the related issues, such as culture learning, to prove the point. With the help of real-life case studies, James makes his argument all the more impressive, demonstrating the instances of cultural misunderstanding on an everyday level: T1: Qu’est-ce que c’est, saucisson? P: Sausages.Adverti sing Looking for critical writing on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More T2: Sausage, yes, what sort? What sort of sausage? Wall’s? P: (Silence) T3: Sort of salami type of sausage, that sort of sausage. (James, n. d., 3-4) Touching upon the Audiolinguialist vetoes, James adds another interesting point to his chain of arguments to consider, such as the existence of other forms of English (e.g., the Irish dialect) the experience of which can also be considered from the cross-cultural point of view. However, with the cross-cultural analysis no longer in existence, the experience would be impossible. In addition, James touches upon neo-Whorfianism, which presupposes that languages shape the thinking process greatly. On the one hand, in the preset fast-changing world and the globalization process, the issues of cultural differences seem to have become slightly more insignificant (Suarez-Orozco Qin-Hilliar d, 2004). Since conveying a message is the primary goal of any communication, there is no need in any cultural background, only the language skills. From the given standpoint, Fries’ ideas have the point. However, because of the differences between languages and the unexpected instances of misunderstandings caused by the existence of homonyms, homophones, or homographs in certain languages, the need for a cross-linguistic analysis becomes obvious (Karanth, 2003, 106).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on A New Role for Contrastive Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When doubting the necessity to use the cross-linguistic analysis, researchers can possibly fail to deliver the information to the people of different cultures, mainly because of the differences in the cultural vision of language and information, which will most likely result in misunderstandings and further misconceptions. When tos sing the cross-linguistic analysis aside, people are not able to realize the specifics of the target culture and, therefore, will fail at conveying certain messages, which, in its turn, will backfire greatly when it comes to the feedback. Despite the fact that the usefulness of a cross-linguistic analysis is being doubted nowadays, there are sufficient reasons to believe that it is only with the help of conducting the analysis in question that people are able to communicate even within the boundaries of different cultures. Reference List James, C. (n. d.). Cross-linguistic awareness: A new role for contrastive analysis. PDF file. 3 January 2013. Karanth, P. (2003). Cross-linguistic study of acquired reading disorders: Implications  for reading models, disorders, acquisition, and teaching. New York, NY: Springer. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Suarez-Orozco, M. Qin-Hilliard, D. B. (20 04). Globalization: Culture and education  for a new millennium. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Advertising Looking for critical writing on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This critical writing on A New Role for Contrastive Analysis was written and submitted by user T0adMen to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Biography of Zheng He, Chinese Admiral

Biography of Zheng He, Chinese Admiral Zheng He (1371–1433 or 1435) was a Chinese admiral and explorer who led several voyages around the Indian Ocean. Scholars have often wondered how history might have been different if the first Portuguese explorers to round the tip of Africa and move into the Indian Ocean had met up with the admirals huge Chinese fleet. Today, Zheng He is considered something of a folk hero, with temples in his honor throughout Southeast Asia. Fast Facts: Zheng He Known For: Zheng He was a powerful Chinese admiral who led several expeditions around the Indian Ocean.Also Known As: Ma HeBorn: 1371 in Jinning, ChinaDied: 1433 or 1435 Early Life Zheng He was born in 1371 in the city now called Jinning in Yunnan Province. His given name was Ma He, indicative of his familys Hui Muslim origins since Ma is the Chinese version of Mohammad. Zheng Hes great-great-great-grandfather Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar was a Persian governor of the province under the Mongolian Emperor Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty that ruled China from 1279 to 1368. Ma Hes father and grandfather were both known as Hajji, the honorific title bestowed upon Muslim men who make the hajj, or  pilgrimage, to Mecca. Ma Hes father remained loyal to the Yuan Dynasty even as the rebel forces of what would become the Ming Dynasty conquered larger and larger swathes of China. In 1381, the Ming army killed Ma Hes father and captured the boy. At just 10 years old, he was made into a eunuch and sent to Beiping (now Beijing) to serve in the household of 21-year-old Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan who later became the Yongle Emperor. Ma He grew to be seven Chinese feet tall (probably around 6-foot-6), with a voice as loud as a huge bell. He excelled at fighting and military tactics, studied the works of Confucius and Mencius, and soon became one of the princes closest confidants. In the 1390s, the Prince of Yan launched a series of attacks against the resurgent Mongols, were based just north of his fiefdom. Zheng Hes Patron Takes the Throne The first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Prince Zhu Dis eldest brother, died in 1398 after naming his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor. Zhu Di did not take kindly to his nephews elevation to the throne and led an army against him in 1399. Ma He was one of his commanding officers. By 1402, Zhu Di had captured the Ming capital at Nanjing and defeated his nephews forces. He had himself crowned as the Yongle Emperor. Zhu Yunwen probably died in his burning palace, although rumors persisted that he had escaped and become a Buddhist monk. Due to Ma Hes key role in the coup, the new emperor awarded him a mansion in Nanjing as well as the honorific name Zheng He. The new Yongle Emperor faced serious legitimacy problems due to his seizure of the throne and the possible murder of his nephew. According to Confucian tradition, the first son and his descendants should always inherit, but the Yongle Emperor was the fourth son. Therefore, the courts Confucian scholars refused to support him and he came to rely almost entirely upon his corps of eunuchs, Zheng He most of all. The Treasure Fleet Sets Sail Zheng Hes most important role in his masters service was being the commander-in-chief of the new treasure fleet, which would serve as the emperors principal envoy to the peoples of the Indian Ocean basin. The Yongle Emperor appointed him to head the massive fleet of 317 junks crewed by over 27,000 men that set out from Nanjing in the fall of 1405. At the age of 35, Zheng He had achieved the highest rank ever for a eunuch in Chinese history. With a mandate to collect tribute and establish ties with rulers all around the Indian Ocean, Zheng He and his armada set forth for Calicut on Indias western coast. It would be the first of seven total voyages of the treasure fleet, all commanded by Zheng He, between 1405 and 1432. During his career as a naval commander, Zheng He negotiated trade  pacts, fought pirates, installed puppet kings, and brought back tribute for the Yongle Emperor in the form of jewels, medicines, and exotic animals. He and his crew traveled and traded not only with the city-states of what are now Indonesia, Malaysia, Siam, and India, but also with the Arabian ports of modern-day Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Although Zheng He was raised Muslim  and visited the shrines of Islamic holy men in Fujian Province and elsewhere, he also venerated Tianfei, the Celestial Consort and protector of sailors. Tianfei had been a mortal woman living in the 900s who achieved enlightenment as a teenager. Gifted with foresight, she was able to warn her brother of an approaching storm at sea, saving his life. Final Voyages In 1424, the Yongle Emperor passed away. Zheng He had made six voyages in his name and brought back countless emissaries from foreign lands to bow before him, but the cost of these excursions weighed heavily on the Chinese treasury. In addition, the Mongols and other nomadic peoples were a constant military threat along Chinas northern and western borders. The Yongle Emperors cautious and scholarly elder son, Zhu Gaozhi, became the Hongxi Emperor. During his nine-month rule, Zhu Gaozhi ordered an end to all treasure fleet construction and repairs. A Confucianist, he believed that the voyages drained too much money from the country. He preferred to spend on fending off the Mongols and feeding people in famine-ravaged provinces instead. When the Hongxi Emperor died less than a year into his reign in 1426, his 26-year-old son became the Xuande Emperor. A happy medium between his proud, mercurial grandfather and his cautious, scholarly father, the Xuande Emperor decided to send Zheng He and the treasure fleet out again. Death In 1432, the 61-year-old Zheng He set out with his largest fleet ever for one final trip around the Indian Ocean, sailing all the way to Malindi on Kenyas east coast and stopping at trading ports along the way. On the return voyage, as the fleet sailed east from Calicut, Zheng He died. He was buried at sea, although legend says that the crew returned a braid of his hair and his shoes to Nanjing for burial. Legacy Although Zheng He looms as a larger-than-life figure in modern eyes both in China and abroad, Confucian scholars made serious attempts to expunge the memory of the great eunuch admiral and his voyages from history in the decades following his death. They feared a return to the wasteful spending on such expeditions. In 1477, for example, a court eunuch requested the records of Zheng Hes voyages with the intention of restarting the program, but the scholar in charge of the records told him that the documents had been lost. Zheng Hes story survived, however, in the accounts of crew members including Fei Xin, Gong Zhen, and Ma Huan, who went on several of the later voyages. The treasure fleet also left stone markers at the places they visited. Today, whether people view Zheng He as an emblem of Chinese diplomacy and soft power or as a symbol of the countrys aggressive overseas expansion, all agree that the admiral and his fleet stand among the great wonders of the ancient world. Sources Mote, Frederick W.  Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press, 2003.Yamashita, Michael S., and Gianni Guadalupi.  Zheng He: Tracing the Epic Voyages of Chinas Greatest Explorer. White Star Publishers, 2006.

Cash flow statement and report Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cash flow statement and report - Case Study Example No figure of tax is mentioned in the profit and loss statement of the company so it is assumed that the net income is profit before tax and the tax paid is incorporated in the tax payable figure. From the net income non cash adjustments have been made such depreciation and loss recorded on sale of fixed asset. Since these items were charged to the profit and loss account, these are added back to the net income. In addition the net increase decrease is calculated in the current assets and liabilities. If the asset has decreased from the previous year it would be taken as cash inflow. This can be understood by considering accounts receivable for example. If the account receivable has decreased this means that the debtor has paid cash (the company would have made the entry Cash: Debit and Accounts receivable: credit) and thus it is taken as cash inflow. ... pany purchased property, plant and equipment amounting to $ 125,000 whereas it received cash from the disposal of some of its property, plant and equipment amounting to $110,000. All in all, the cash flow is showing a net decrease of $25,000 as compared to the previous year. (b) The board of directors of the company needs to decide whether the funding should be equity based or debt based. Both modes of financing i.e. equity and debt have their own advantages and disadvantages. There are several factors which need to be considered before taking such decisions. For example statutory rules and requirements, terms and conditions imposed by the counter party and general economic conditions are analyzed before selecting one of the options. One of the major drawbacks of raising finance equity through issuance of equity is the fact that a lot of secretarial procedure is involved in raising such finance in contrast to acquiring financing directly from any bank. Most of the time, financing fro m any bank or financial institution is acquired by just filing an application with the bank or financial institution. The banks usually have their own procedure of screening where they evaluate the credit history, financial outlook, liquidity and other aspects of the company. Most importantly, the bank’s analyze the fact and ability of the company pertaining to the ability of the company to repay the amount of loan in the future. When it comes to raising finances through issuance of equity shares, the company is liable to fulfill several requirements such as making sure that a certain number of shares are issued in accordance with the listing regulations of the stock exchange, submitting a due diligence report to the share holder and issuing share to the current shareholder in accordance

Tourism and Corporate Social Responsibility Essay

Tourism and Corporate Social Responsibility - Essay Example However, like in any other industry, the value of CSR in tourism operations has not been practiced universally though recognized by industry players in recent years. One of the main reasons for the limited practice is the view that it is often considered non-essential in operations or is a secondary financial and operational priority (Campbell, 2006). At the same time, most management principles designed for the industry are focused on direct clients and sustainability has only become a recent priority for the industry (Voultsaki, 2000). Henderson (2007) points out however that recent global events, such as the Indian Ocean tsunami, have greatly challenged this viewpoint. The realization is that as tourism industries have become more significant for economies and become more accessible to global markets, it is impacting social interactions, communications and collaborations in a similar scale. In a study developed by Weaver and Lawton (2004), the concern that tourism is affecting local communities negatively developed from the limited insight on how visitor's movements and activities can change social, political and cultural dynamics. Though tourism generally boosts local economies, it also increases the demand for social services, potential for crime and victimization and environmental stress (Voultsaki, 2000). The scale of tourism has been increased dramatically by innovations communication transportation and has challenged even long-established tourist hot spots to deal with the influx of visitors (Henderson, 2007). Though many of the issues have been dealt with effectively as they developed, there was also the realization the most efforts were reactive rather than responsive to the developing needs of tourism industries. Thus, the initiative to improve industry sustainability concepts and practices became a major area of interest for research and management. According to Campbell (2006), one of the challenges for the adaptation of CSR principles is communicating effectively that the quantified costs of CSR programs are justified. Since CSR-based or initiated program benefits can not be justified directly by quantitative measures, the cost-benefit analysis often negates implementation. Though companies may be able to have fiscal justification, Henderson (2007) points out that such perspectives do not only diminish the social involvement and participation of company and ultimately lessen not only their own social value but the rest of the industry as well. This in turn can compromise public support for tourism initiatives or create deterrents to the development of policies and regulations for the industry. From the other end of the spectrum the when companies adapt CSR philosophies, the state and the community are able mitigate or regulate corporate social power which may be pervading particularly in the case of large multinational operat ors in least developed countries (Whitehouse, 2003; UNCTAD, 2002). Thus, in establishing their social relevance and concern, tourism operators are able to maintain socio-political

Liability & Use of Force Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Liability & Use of Force - Assignment Example Some state statutes actually necessitates that the other individual should have received the demand or request, and confirmation of commission about the overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy. Examples of such crimes include solicitation of murder, prostitution or bribery. In other statutes, solicitation crime takes place right away the asking occurs despite of what the outcomes of such a deed are whether or not, the solicited individual was ready and capable to conduct the offense or not. States do have specific solicitation statutes as well as general solicitation statutes, such as obstruction of justice solicitation (Ross, 2012). A number of statures require specific corroboration necessity under general solicitation. A case in point is the Texas penal code section 15.03(b) which defines that any individual cannot be convicted under such section based on uncorroborated testimony of the individual purportedly solicited evidence (Gardner & Anderson, 2011). Two options are used w hen trying to prove that a defendant is guilty of solicitation crime. Firstly, there is the provision of corroboration only a single witness plus corroborating evidence. Second, corroboration is provided by two witnesses, in addition to the corroborating evidence. Thus, under a solicitation crime, the corroborating evidence needs to link crime commission to the accused. That is why it is independent from witness confirmation facts. It may comprise acts, behavior, statements, as well as other circumstances that display a link of the defendant to the stated crime (Singer & La Fond, 2010). Question 2 Conspiracy is substantiated when there is an accord to perform any illegal act. However, majority of the federal statutes necessitate that one of the co-conspirators should have commit an overt deed, such as assassination, abduction, defrauding of the government, or else commit a breach of a person civil rights in furthering the intentions of the conspiracy (Gardner & Anderson, 2011). Furt hermore, there is no much consideration concerning which one of the supposed co-conspirators performed the overt act.   Thus, it need not be a criminal deed, but just a single overt deed is sufficient to establish the reality of the conspiracy (Gaines & Miller, 2012). The reason being that without an overt action, it is not legally sufficient to validate that the said crime was performed with the declarant being conscious of the present conspiracy, and went further to get  connected to such a crime intentionally. The rationalization is that the declarant collaborated positively inside the action, or just offered an agreement to collaborate, and which does not substantiate that they participated in the crime (Gardner & Anderson, 2011).   Notably, the overt act cannot be brought against the other suspected co-conspirators, when it was not wished to further the broader intentions of the conspiracy. Nevertheless, it qualifies when both clandestinely planned to further the particip ant own individual purpose.   Moreover, the overt act need not be a subsequent autonomous act which follows the structure of the conspiracy. When it comes to multiple conspiracies, the defendant can be linked to different conspiracy, and the co-conspirator is the only individual permitted to tender

Theories and studies about reducing racial prejudice

Theories and studies about reducing racial prejudice Everyone has a race or ethnic group that they see themselves as being part of. On the other hand, not all people are exposed to stinging words or physical harm from a prejudiced individual because of the color of their skin. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2005), there are approximately 210,000 hate crimes a year; racial prejudice is the motivation for over half of them. This paper will discuss theories and studies on ways to reduce racial prejudice. Racial prejudice has been around since groups of people could distinguish themselves from one another (Milner, 1983). The 1920s were when prejudice started catching the attention of psychologists as a social phenomenon that needed to be studied (Duckitt, 1992). Samelson (1978) talked about how tests between races were first meant to measure individuality but soon the authors were publishing empirical evidence that Whites were superior to Blacks (as cited in Duckitt, 1992, p. 1185). Milner (1983) states that prejudice occurs because people become frustrated, need a scapegoat, or because they are feeling some anxiety and need a way to release it. One of the first texts on prejudice and reducing prejudice was written by Gordon W. Allport. Encouraged by Robin Williams study on conditions that further the reduction of racism, Allport wrote The Nature of Prejudice in which he discusses his contact hypothesis (Utsey, Ponterotto, Porter, 2008). Allport (1954) stated that prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals (p. 281). Allport (1954) also says there are eight different areas of contact, causal, residential, occupational, recreational, religious, civic and fraternal, political, and goodwill intergroup activities. Allport (1954) says that both state and federal legislation can be used to pass antidiscrimination laws and have public agencies enforce these laws. According to Allport (1954), there are six programs that can be used to reduce prejudice. They are formal educational methods, contact and acquaintance programs, group retraining methods, mass media, exhortation, and individual therapy. Allport (1954) feels that individual therapy is the best one, yet no study has been convincing of this. Allport (1954) describes formal educational methods as teaching about prejudice in the school setting. There are five types of formal educational methods. There is the informational approach, direct approach, indirect approach, the approach through vicarious experience, and the project method. The next method is contact and acquaintance programs which means that White people and Black people get together and get to know each other. The third method is group retraining. In group retraining, the outgroup members and the ingroup members switch roles and try to become empathetic to each other. The fourth method is mass media in which messages are sent in the media spreading information on tolerance of others. The next method is exhortation which is like religion in which leaders spread the message of tolerance of other people. Finally, there is individual therapy in which a person meets with a therapist to change their way of thinking. Blincoe and Harris (2009) talk about three major programs that cause a minimization in racial prejudice. Cooperation is similar to Allports (1954) contact theory. This program has been used in jigsaw classrooms in which children are broken up into racially varied group and then each child is given a piece of information to teach to the others (Aronson Bridgeman, 2007; Blincoe Harris, 2009). Along with the children learning information, they also showed higher self-esteem, liked school more, and for minorities, their school grades had improved (Aronson Bridgeman, 2007). The tolerance program is synonymous with political tolerance and the respect program is supposed to reinforce and encourage diversity (Blincoe Harris, 2009). Crisp and Turner (2009) hypothesize that imagining contact with an outgroup can have a close or same effect on diminishing prejudice as actual contact with an outgroup. Turner, Crisp, and Lambert, (2007) found that participants who imagined an optimistic interaction with an outgroup member conveyed more positive attitudes and less prejudice than those who did not (as cited in Crisp Turner, 2009). Stathi and Crisp (2008) did a study that showed that even though projection of positive self traits is higher for ingroups than outgroups (Clement Krueger, 2002), positive imagined contact leads to greater projection of positive traits to outgroups (as cited in Crisp Turner, 2009, p. 234). In addition to contact theory, there is the goal based approach which consists of three goals that people need to reach. These are comprehension goals, self-enhancement goals, and motivation to avoid prejudice (Kunda Spencer, 2003). Kunda and Spencer (2003) say that comprehension goals include the need to understand events, reduce the complexity of the environment, gain cognitive clarity, and form rational impressions. Stereotypes serve these needs by enabling perceivers to simplify and understand the huge amounts of social information that they confront and to make inferences that go beyond available information (p. 524). They also say that self-enhancement goals include the need to protect and enhance self-esteem. Lastly, motivation to avoid prejudice inhibits the activation of stereotypes. When people notice that they are treating others differently because of their skin color, they will feel the discrepancies because they know it is not right. Therefore they feel guilty which ma kes them repress their prejudiced thoughts. Another part of the goal-based theory is why there is prejudice in the first place. Kenrick, Neugberg, and Cialdini (2009) feel that there are two things that prejudice does for people, it helps us gain economic resources and the characteristics of the other groups bring our economic goals to our attention. The first way to achieve the goals of the goal-based theory is to attempt to change the character of the prejudiced person. The second is to change the situation in which the prejudiced person feels like they can discriminate against others. Next is to give people a different way to satisfy their goals and last is to activate goals incompatible with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Part of the goal-based approach involves looking at the point of view of other people. Galinksy and Moskowitz (2000) say that when a person looks at themselves, they have higher favorable responses to the ingroup. Turner (1987) says favoritism increases toward the in-group (as cited in, Galinsky Moskowitz, 2000, p. 709). Therefore, thinking that you are part of the outgroup will increase positive responses to them and decrease prejudice thoughts about them (Galinsky Moskowitz, 2000). In the judicial area, the goal-based approach has some significance. Studying about prejudice and ingroups and outgroups can become very important especially for those who may be suing another person in civil court for injury that they could have caused. People tend to like others who are similar to them (Kerr, Hymes, Anderson, Weathers, 1995). If a juror feels that they are not similar to the plaintiff in a malpractice case that juror might feel that the plaintiff should get a lower amount of money to compensate for the damages or perhaps believe they should not get any money at all. The same applies to the defendant. If the juror feels they are similar to the defendant than they could be more lenient on his punishment (Green Bornstein, 2003). However, Marques and Yzerbyt (1988) say that the opposite effect can also happen. That is, the jurors are harsher on an ingroup member because they are part of the ingroup and they pose a threat to the positive image of the ingroup members. They call it the black sheep effect in which positively viewed ingroup members are viewed better than outgroup members but negatively viewed ingroup members are viewed as being worse than outgroup members (as cited in, Green Bornstein 2003). Finally, there is the ignorance hypothesis. People experience prejudiced thoughts because they simply do not know any better (Kenrick, Neugberg, Cialdini, 2009). If everyone would interact with the other groups, they wouldnt stereotype individuals of other groups. However, Stephan and Stephan (1996) say research shows that this approach does little to reduce prejudice (as cited in, Kenrick, Neuburg, Cialdini, 2009). Case (2007) did a study in which college students were required to take a course on diversity. The course was designed to heighten recognition of White privilege and racism, raise support for affirmative action, and decrease prejudice, guilt, and fear of other races. The students took a survey at the beginning of the course which measured White privilege, awareness of racism, and the students level of racism to different ethnic groups. The same survey was given at the end of the semester as well. Results showed white privilege, awareness of racism and support for affirmative action increased. However, students reported greater fear of other races. Students levels of racism remained constant except for racism against Latinos, which increased. Case explains this as possibly being by chance or that the course could have actually increased prejudice. Blanchard, Lilly, and Vaughn (1991) hypothesized that hearing another person express strong antiracist opinions would have more of an effect than hearing another person express equal opinions or opinions that were more accepting of racism. They also speculated that when a person hears another person express strong support of racism, the first person showed less support of antiracism. They did two studies in which they interviewed college students in a group with a confederate who either openly expressed strong antiracist views or strong racist views when asked about a false situation in what should happen to another student who wrote racist notes. There was a neutral condition in which the participant answered the questions first and in the other condition the confederate answered first. The authors hypotheses were confirmed in both of the experiments. In 2007, four studies were done by Turner, Hewstone, and Loci that investigated self-disclosure as a mediator of the effect of cross-group friendship and vicarious experiences of such friendship (p. 371). The subjects for studies one were children between the ages of eight and twelve. The ages of the children for subjects two and three were 12 through 16. The last study included undergraduate students. In Study One, students were first given tasks that required them to categorize photographs of faces as negative or positive and White or Asian. The last tasks were to categorize White/Positive or Asian/Negative and White/Negative or Asian/Positive. In Study Two, the students were given questionnaires on their thoughts on the other ethnic group. The third study was the same as the second study except the experimenters used a larger group. In Study Four, White participants were given a questionnaire that measured predictor variables, mediator variables, and explicit outgroup attitude. So me of questions were, How often do you discuss intimate or personal issues with people who are Asian? (p. 380) and How rewarding are the interactions you have with Asian people? (p. 380). All four studies found that self-disclosure positively predicted explicit outgroup attitude. Vrij, Akehurst, and Smith (2003) conducted a study where people were shown cue cards and then were given surveys to measure prejudice. They focused on seven principles, that they say decrease prejudice when used in public campaigns. The seven principles are (1) an emphasis on similarities; (2) positive similarities in a positive context; (3) many representative members; (4) provision of explicit information; (5) employ a credible source; (6) state illegality; (7) central and peripheral routes to persuasion (p. 285). Each of the cue cards had one of the seven principles or the opposite of it. For example, state illegality was shown on one cue card as one White man and one Black man approximately the same age with wording above them that said These two men applied for a job as an Accounts Manager. The man on the left was turned down because he is Black (p. 291); the other card was the same as the first one but had the wording IT IS ILLEGAL TO DISCRIMINATE ON THE GROUNDS OF RACE (RACE R ELATIONS ACT, 1976) (p. 291). Subjects were then given a survey that measured their prejudice. Vrij, Akehurst, and Smith found that if the subject viewed a card that did not have one of the seven principles, their prejudice had increased versus if they had seen one of the principles. The two principles that had the most effect were emphasis of similarities and similarities in a positive context. Carpenter, Za ´rate, and Garzas study that was done in 2007, focused on using differences and individuality to reduce prejudice in groups that are African American, White American, Mexican American, and Mexican National. In Experiment One, the African American and White American participants were first primed with stories that had an emphasis on the personal self or others. Then, they filled out questionnaires while looking at pictures of African Americans and White Americans. The White Americans, who were primed to have an emphasis on others, had reduced prejudice. However, the African Americans showed no difference in prejudice levels. In Experiment Two, White Americans, Mexican Americans, and Mexican Nationals took self-esteem tests and then answered questions on all three groups. Carpenter, Za ´rate, and Garza (2007) found that self-esteem did not have any effect on prejudice and that looking at ways that your own ethnic group is different from other groups can lessen prejudi ce. Pettigrew and Tropp (2006) did a meta-analysis of over 500 studies and 713 independent samples that tested the intergroup contact theory. Their findings showed that intergroup contact does decrease intergroup prejudice. Pettigrew and Tropp go on to say that the conditions are not independent but entwined with each other. They also feel that intergroup contact can be utilized to end prejudice against other underrepresented groups. Racism not only exists among individual people but also in government forms. Billingsley and Giovannoni (1972) have been doing studies that show that African American children have been consistently counted out from services provided by child welfare establishments, they believe this is due to racism that exists in these institutions (as cited in, Miller Ward, 2008). Miller and Ward (2008) say there has been overrepresentation of African Americans in the welfare system for a long time. They then go on to talk about the Breakthrough Series Collaborative (BSC) methodology was used to analyze the welfare systems racism and then identify strategies to reduce the racial disproportions. The BSC theory of change has six areas which are (1) increase the awareness and understanding of the issue, (2) identify challenges and test strategies for improvement, (3) implement site-level policy and practice improvements, (4) spread the improvements throughout the larger system, (5) sustain system-wi de improvements, and (6) improve child and family outcomes (p. 227). Many participants of the program reported being able to achieve a fully functional program in their location. However, the participants said they had difficulty spreading changes from their location to a larger system. More work still needs to be done to stop the racial prejudice that occurs in the welfare system. There are also racial discrepancies in the health care system. For example, according to the Centers for Disease Control, in 2006, the age-adjusted death rate for White Americans of both sexes, was 764.4 and for African Americans of both sexes, it was 982.0 (Heron, Hoyert, Murphy, Xu, Kochanek, Tejada-Vera, 2009). In 2002, Dovidio et al. conducted a study of racism that occurs during an emergency. White subjects were half as likely to help a Black person as they were to help a White person. While the participants opposed that the idea they were racist, it was the only difference in the fabricated emergency (as cited in Carlson Chamberlain, 2004, p. 375). Carlson and Chamberlain (2004) say that to reduce the health disparities between White Americans and African Americans, there must be a change in the research areas that combine social conditions with the physiological pathways to health and disease and that we need to join together on emotional levels to understand each other to c hange racial attitudes. In addition to healthcare and welfare, racism has even showed up in our grocery stores. In a study that was done in 2003, Topolski, Boyd-Bowman, and Ferguson found differences in the quality of fruits in grocery stores that were part of the same chain but were located in different parts of the city. They collected fruit samples from stores that were located in neighborhoods that had high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status. More minorities lived in the lower income neighborhoods. The quality of the fruit in the high SES neighborhood was better than the fruit that came from the other neighborhood, as judged by students who examined, ate the fruit and then rated them. As you can see, there is hope for eliminating racial prejudice. On the other hand, a lot of the studies that I presented in this paper were done with children and college students. It still leaves out a majority of the population. Yet, I think we have come a long way from previous generations in accepting others, especially in the case of race and ethnicity. If we eliminate or even reduce racial prejudice, then minority children will do better in school, they will have better economic and career opportunities, and will experience lower rates of crime against them. With the current research on racial prejudice, we could also apply these theories to sexism, homophobia, and ageism. Hopefully, in time, Andy Warhols I think everybody should like everybody quote will finally be true.

Stress In The Workplace Essay examples -- Effects of Stress in the Wor

An increasing number of employers are becoming aware of the adverse affects that stress can have on an employee's performance and are offering different programs to help employees manage stress in their lives. This approach is proving to increase workplace performance, as well as improve employee loyalty and retention in the long run. What Causes Stress? Causes and Concerns Stress has been defined as a physiologic reaction to uncomfortable or unaccustomed physical or psychological stimuli. The biological variations that can result from stress of the sympathetic nervous system include a heightened state of alertness, anxiety, rapid heart rate and sweating. Not surprisingly, everyone has different triggers that cause stress in their lives and according to a number of surveys, work related stress tops the list for most people. In fact, forty percent of employees in the United States reported that they regularly experience work-related stress and a rising number of them are reporting that work is the largest stress in their lives. This is creating health and economic problems, not just for the American workforce but globally as well. Effects of Stress on Employees Physical and Emotional Individuals under stress at work have been known to experience fatigue and/or low motivation which can directly influence an organization’s morale and decrease overall productivity. Any professional with an M.A. in Industrial Organizational Psychology will tell you that str...